This paper critically examines attachment theory and feminist theory in relation to perinatal mood and anxiety disorders (PMADs). It highlights how integrating these theories can provide a more comprehensive framework for understanding and treating PMADs. Perinatal mental illness encompasses psychiatric disorders that occur during pregnancy and up to one year postpartum (O’Hara & Wisner, 2014). Depression can range from mild to severe and anxiety disorders include generalized anxiety, social anxiety, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and psychosis (O’Hara & Wisner, 2014). PMADs are often assessed during the perinatal period using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, a self-report measure (Cox et al., 1987). The PHQ-9 is another self-report measure commonly used in primary care settings to screen for major depressive disorder, including perinatal depression (Spitzer et al., 1999)
Perinatal mood and anxiety disorders are significant obstetric complications linked to severe maternal morbidity, poor obstetric outcomes, and increased healthcare costs (McKee et al., 2020). In high-income countries, suicide is the leading cause of death during the perinatal period. Though not the primary contributor to maternal mortality in low- and middle-income countries, suicide remains a significant factor (Grigoriadis et al., 2017; Oates, 2003). Among the various PMADs, postpartum depression (PPD) is the most extensively studied, with incidence rates ranging from 13% to 19%, and even higher rates in low- and middle-income countries (Howard & Khalifeh, 2020; O’Hara & McCabe, 2013). Perinatal anxiety disorders (generalized anxiety, social anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder, panic disorder) affect an estimated 20% of individuals during the perinatal period (Fawcett et al., 2019).
Attachment theory posits that early relationships between caregivers and infants lay the groundwork for future relational, social, and emotional development (Bowlby, 1969). These attachments are crucial for a child’s sense of security and influence their behavior throughout life (Bowlby, 1969). Research has linked attachment patterns to adult mental health (Zhang et al., 2022). Meanwhile, feminist theory seeks to understand and highlight how injustice is embedded in systems, behaviors, and cultural norms related to gender (Ackerly & True, 2010). This paper suggests that these two theories should be considered as lenses for treating PMADs.
Perinatal Mood and Anxiety Disorder Etiology and Treatment
Several meta-analyses show that the cause of PMADs is influenced by a variety of factors, including biological, environmental, and psychological, broken into three risk factor categories: history of psychiatric illness, lack of social support, and life stress (O’Hara & Wisner, 2014). Biological factors such as the significant postpartum decrease in the hormone estradiol predispose the birthing person to postpartum depression (PPD) (Bloch et al., 2000). Genetic factors can also predispose a birthing person to PPD (Mahon et al., 2009). Poor social support and a history of depression or other mental health disorders are moderate to strong risk factors for PMADs (O’Hara & Wisner, 2014).
Research shows that PMADs respond well to treatment. A meta-analysis by Stephens et al. (2016) found that psychological interventions, including cognitive behavioral therapy and interpersonal therapy, effectively reduce symptoms of postpartum depression up to 12 months after treatment. Similarly, Howard and Khalifeh (2020), in their literature review, identified that interventions such as cognitive behavioral therapy and interpersonal therapy are effective in treating PMADs. Due to ethical concerns, there is a lack of randomized controlled trials of the pharmacological treatment of PMADs. However, the existing research on pharmacological treatments for PPD shows that antidepressants are effective in decreasing depressive symptoms (Howard & Khalifeh, 2020). Unfortunately, pregnant women on the lower end of the socio economic spectrum may not receive timely and appropriate treatment as was evident in a retrospective study in British Columbia on pregnant women who were depressed during pregnancy (Hanley et al., 2018). Further disrupting access to treatment is the fact that Medicaid is contingent upon providers accepting it. Low-income and ethnic/racial minorities are disproportionately affected when providers do not accept Medicaid (Shuffrey et al. 2022). The economic inequities that impact access to treatment are just one reason social workers, professionals who promote social justice should care about perinatal mental health.
Perinatal Mental Health and Social Work
Fortunately, there is a niche of social workers specializing in PMADs and other issues that arise in the perinatal period. According to the National Association of Perinatal Social Workers (NAPSW) (NAPSW, n. d.), perinatal social workers provide professional support to individuals, families, and communities in navigating the psychosocial challenges that occur in the perinatal period. The NAPSW asserts that perinatal social work aims to ensure every family and baby is treated with compassionate and competent care. Social workers do this in various settings, including but not limited to hospitals, pediatric hospices, foster care and adoption agencies, substance abuse recovery programs, private practice, and early intervention programs.
Research has established an increased risk of child maltreatment when a parent is experiencing a mental illness, including a PMAD (Ayers et al., 2019; O’Donnell et al., 2015). Infant mental health is also at risk when a parent has a PMAD, indicating PMADs should be on the radar of all social workers interacting with children and families. In a review of the literature, Goodman (2019) found a wealth of evidence pointing to adverse mental health outcomes in infants and children when a mother is depressed. Goodman (2019) contends that maternal mental health is intertwined with infant and early childhood mental health. In a small 2019 English study by Taylor et al., the researchers used qualitative data to explore the relationship between social workers and mothers with perinatal mental health needs. The researchers found that these mothers had a negative view of social workers. They found that a common theme among the mothers was a fear of losing their babies to the child welfare system, which they associated with the social workers. However, the study also highlighted that mothers who felt heard and understood by the social worker were willing to strengthen the relationship, potentially leading to a positive collaboration in interventions.
The authors remained optimistic that a collaborative care approach among mental health providers and social workers could ensure a system meeting mothers’ needs. The study showed an opportunity for social workers to improve their service delivery to people affected by PMADs. The study underscores the importance of social workers being well-informed about PMADs and understanding the needs that women have rather than solely focusing on the risks of PMADs to babies (Taylor et al., 2019). Providing social workers with a theoretical framework such as feminism could potentially shift the focus onto the mother’s needs while also holding the baby’s welfare in mind. Feminist-informed social work aims to create environments conducive to the well-being of the child and mother by centering the mother’s voice and experiences. Using a feminist framework, does not limit social workers to one modality. In fact, clinical social workers who are feminist in their practice draw from an assortment of interventions and modalities (Land, 1999).
Additionally, social workers have the training and skills to address PMADs at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels. Social workers provide support at a micro level as they work with clients individually. They assist in addressing immediate mental health concerns and supporting them in identifying needs and resources in the perinatal period. Social workers work in the community at the mezzo level, interact with healthcare providers and clients. They support clients in navigating the healthcare system and connect them to other community resources. Social workers educate medical personnel on PMADs and collaborate to create systems to serve birthing people and families. At the macro level, social workers advocate at the local, state, and federal levels to implement policies that support complete family care. Paid family leave, breast/chest feeding friendly policies, mental health care, health care expansion, and affordable childcare are all areas where social workers advocate for parents, caregivers, children, and families (Hansen, 2022).
Theory and Perinatal Mental Health Treatment
Attachment Theory
John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth are two of the most prominent attachment theorists. Attachment theory focuses on how the bond between a child’s primary caregiver and the child shapes the development of the child’s mental functioning (Harlow, 2021). Mary Ainsworth wrote that “attachment refers to an affectionate tie that one person (or animal) forms to another specific individual” (Ainsworth, 1969, p. 971). Ainsworth (1969) argued that attachment begins with the primary caregiver in infancy but continues with others throughout the lifetime. John Bowlby also believed attachment begins with a primary caregiver, and it is this caregiver’s responsibility to establish a secure attachment with the infant and a sense of safety (Harlow, 2021).
Bowlby is credited with developing attachment theory in the mid-20th century, studying how the disruption of a child’s tie to their mother affects development (Bowlby, 1969). Ainsworth is credited with the concept of a secure base, which means that an infant must feel secure with the caregiver before trekking out toward unknown places and people (Ainsworth, 1969). In the 1970s, she also categorized different styles of attachment. Ainsworth conducted the infamous strange situation study and, by observing the behaviors of mothers and infants, established that infants fall into one of three attachment categories: secure, avoidant, and ambivalent-resistant (Ainsworth & Bowlby, 1991). Since its inception, attachment theory has been a critical part of social work, informing practice in areas such as child welfare, psychotherapy, and research (Harlow, 2021).
Strengths and Limitations of Attachment Theory
Understanding how attachment impacts help-seeking behaviors is something for social workers to remember. Research shows that people with a secure attachment believe that others are trustworthy and will likely be supportive in times of distress (Bowlby, 1973; Bowlby, 1980) While people with anxious attachment are less likely to disclose their stress to professionals for fear of being abandoned (Shaffer et al., 2006; Vogel & Wei, 2005) and those with avoidant attachment tend to underreport their distressing symptoms, and over-value self-sufficiency (Cacciola & Psouni, 2020). Moreover, researchers have established that attachment anxiety is associated with depression and an increased risk for depression in women in the postpartum period (Bifulco et al., 2004; Meredith & Noller, 2003), and attachment avoidance is associated with an increased risk for postpartum depression in women. Insecure attachment results in a tendency to distrust other people due to negative thoughts about oneself and others (Martinez et al., 2021). Understanding the risks of PMADs based on attachment style offers an opportunity to engage with clients by modeling secure attachment in the clinician-client relationship. Furthermore, this modeling offers parents the scaffolding they can use in their relationship with their child(ren).
One critique of early attachment theory is its focus on the mother-infant dyad. Attachment theory, especially as developed by Mary Ainsworth, concentrated on the mother and infant in research. Other caregivers, such as fathers, grandparents, aunts, uncles, and other community members, were left out of consideration (Vicedo, 2017). It is vital to remember that PMADs affect more than just the mother and child. Fathers and other caregivers are too diagnosed with PMADs and sometimes simultaneously with the mothers (Smythe et al., 2022).
Moreover, though attachment theory has evolved to include other primary attachments, it holds that only one caregiver is usually considered in early attachment. Furthermore, even when other caregivers are considered, there is a danger in looking at attachment with microlens, focusing only on the caregiver and child—this risks inattention to environmental and cultural factors of PMADs. Much of attachment research, including Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation experiment, was also conducted in a laboratory, eschewing field studies that could offer a larger contextual framework (Vicedo, 2017).
Attachment theory was built on Eurocentric norms, so cultural adaptations must be made when applied to cultures that are not Eurocentric (Choate & Tortorelli, 2022). Considering that PMADs affect people worldwide, attachment theory needs to be applied appropriately in terms of culture in PMAD treatment. Choate and Tortorelli (2022) highlights that attachment theory is often used to justify the long-term placement of Indigenous children in non-Indigenous families. However, when cultural context is not adequately considered when applying the theory, social workers may inadvertently cause more harm than good, as the study illustrates. The relationship between a child and their primary caregiver is key in shaping the child’s mental health development, including how they think, feel, and relate to others. Social workers need to understand the cultural complexities when using attachment theory, primarily if they work in child welfare or with children at higher risk for child maltreatment, such as those with parents with PMAD.
Feminist Theory
Feminism aims to identify and analyze the systemic patterns of injustice reflected in society’s structures, behaviors, and values, particularly concerning gender differences. (Ackerly and True, 2010). Moreover, feminist theory influences and draws from women’s advocacy efforts to advance social equity and inclusive practices (Kemp & Brandwein, 2010). Feminism was grounded in the civic life of women in the 19th and 20th centuries, and it has evolved and moved through different iterations. Today, there are different branches of feminism, including but not limited to liberal, cultural, post-modern, womanist, and radical (Saulnier, 2008).
Radical feminism posits that patriarchy is the primary culprit of women’s oppression since it creates a power imbalance that favors men. It establishes that all interactions – on the micro, mezzo, and macro levels perpetuate male privilege. Radical feminism contends that violence against women, whether physical, sexual, or otherwise, can only be stopped by dismantling patriarchy (Kemp & Brandwein, 2010; Saulnier, 2008). Third-wave feminism grew out of second-wave feminism, which lacked the diversity of sexuality, culture, and gender. Third-wave feminism is more inclusive and emphasizes the lived experience of oppressed groups. As a result of the third wave, feminists have given increased attention to marginalized folks, such as bisexuals, lesbians, and people of color. The third wave also provided an opportunity to reconsider understanding identity fluidity and labels (Kemp & Brandwein, 2010).
Matricentric feminism is viewed as the unfinished aspect of feminism, focusing on the experience of motherhood. It argues that our understanding of life remains incomplete without comprehending how a mother’s role shapes an individual (O’Reilly, 2016). Matricentric feminism recognizes that motherhood is socially and historically constructed, challenging the notion that maternity is inherently natural to women and that mothering is an instinctual behavior (O’Reilly, 2016). In social work, particularly in perinatal mental health, feminist theory can provide valuable insights when working with new and seasoned mothers alike.
Feminist research most commonly uses an inductive approach and qualitative methodology (Gringeri et al., 2010). In considering a qualitative approach, attention is given to women’s voices and lived experiences. A qualitative methodology gives the participants the platform to give and explore context that is often overlooked in quantitative data. As stated in Mollard (2015), feminism research allows women to share what they have experienced, what they hope for, and what they need. Qualitative research allows women to give input toward treatment and solutions (Mollard, 2015). Context is essential in feminist research as well, giving attention to women’s social, political, and economic concerns. Qualitative research gives women the rich and sometimes unique opportunity to speak to power dynamics and the power imbalance between genders, providing researchers with opportunities to amplify knowledge of oppressive situations. Lokot (2021) posits that a feminist approach to qualitative interviewing promotes voices typically marginalized be heard and thus reveal power dynamics that might otherwise remain hidden. Furthermore, institutions who use qualitative research may integrate women’s direct feedback to enhance services (Cellissen et al., 2022).
Feminist Theory and Perinatal Mood and Anxiety Disorders
Feminist theory fits well into PMAD research because it acknowledges factors other theories may not consider or scrutinize. Feminism recognizes biological components of the perinatal period. Mollard (2015) expands on this concept by writing that women should be understood as whole, integrated beings, where the mind and body are deeply connected, and their psychological and biological experiences are intertwined. When considering PMADs from a feminist perspective, it is crucial not to look at the biological component as the only potential causative factor. Cultural, environmental, and psychological considerations should also be addressed when looking at PMADs through a feminist lens. Feminism recognizes that different cultures and societies view the perinatal period differently. For example, in Western societies, there is little emphasis placed on community support for mothers in the postpartum period compared to non-Western societies (Bina, 2008). And in fact, in non-Western societies, symptoms of a perinatal mood disorder such as postpartum depression are thought to be the result of lack of support (Goldbort, 2006).
When looking at PMADs through a feminist lens, there is no way to divorce PMADs from cultural bias (Mollard, 2015). Matrescence is shaped by gendered expectations and power dynamics often found in healthcare. For instance, studies show that women of color and immigrant mothers are frequently discouraged from seeking treatment or identifying perinatal mental health disorders because cultural norms may frame distress as a failure on the mother’s part (Button et al., 2017). A feminist framework demands placing perinatal mental health within intersecting structures to expose how, if women’s voices are not centered therein, lies a risk of reinforcing cultural bias.
Similarly, third-wave feminism argues that there is no way to separate a woman’s lived experience from the cultural experience of patriarchy (Kemp & Brandwein, 2010). One can infer that this lived experience includes the perinatal experience as well. Lastly, Mollard (2015) understands that expectations of a maternal role may impact women during the perinatal period. A feminist lens views depression in mothers as stemming from unrealistic expectations of the ideal maternal role rather than a personal pathology. Feminist critique shifts the focus from blaming the woman to questioning the societal standards of motherhood Changing the narrative from blaming the individual to challenging the structure that imposed unrealistic standards on women. (Mollard, 2015). Feminist critique advances the idea of the which defies these unrealistic standards of self-sacrifice, and prioritizes children’s needs above all else.
Feminist Scholarship
Feminism also allows for family structure diversity and a modern understanding of caregiver and child separation. In Andersen (1991), the author points out that feminist scholarship was developed at a pivotal time in history. New feminist research on families is emerging amid structural changes – such as risking numbers of female-headed households and declining married couple families – that are reshaping family life across lines of race and class (Andersen, 1991). This allowed feminism to highlight various family structures and move beyond the idea of a family made up of a mother, father, and child(ren). With the advent of third-wave feminism, gender fluidity and flexibility in gender roles was embraced (Kemp & Brandwein, 2010). Therefore, third-wave feminism allowed for more understanding of lesbian or same-sex relationships and families. Third-wave feminism also embraces intersectionality in a way that previous iterations of feminism did not (Kemp & Brandwein, 2010). In thinking about how separation may affect attachment, it is essential to note that a key contribution of feminist scholarship is revealing how work and family are deeply interconnected, both shaped by broader economic production systems (Andersen, 1991). Feminism does not divorce family and work and, therefore, can underpin the understanding of attachment and separation between caregiver and child in a modern context, where many caregivers work outside the home (Liss & Erchull, 2012). Furthermore, in a modern context of dual-income homes, studies show that women who are employed disproportionally assume the mental load of caregiving, which impacts the caregiver-child relationship (Barigozzi et al., 2025).
Need for Feminism in Social Work
Unfortunately for the discipline of social work, there is a dearth of feminist research and much of what exists is limited in its depth. In a meta-analysis by Gringeri et al. (2010), the authors concluded that social work tends to present a narrow view of feminism, often reinforcing binary gender distinctions and overlooking the complex, nuanced realities of people’s lives, thereby limiting its engagement with the broader field of feminist social science (Gringeri et al., 2010) The authors suggested social workers move away from binary thinking, offering that in destabilizing gender, researchers are better equipped to see participants “in context.” Embracing a “person in context” approach enables participants to identify themselves more fully (Gringeri et al., 2010).
Conclusion
Gringeri et al. (2010) emphasize the importance of conducting in-depth feminist research in social work. Among the various branches of feminist theory, matricentric feminism deserves special attention in social work research. This approach supports attachment theory by focusing on mothers’ experiences, who often play crucial roles in establishing early attachments (Bowlby, 1969; Ainsworth, 1969). Matricentric feminism naturally builds on attachment theory by recognizing that her political, social, and economic environment influences a mother’s capacity to create secure attachments (O’Reilly, 2016). While attachment theory takes a micro-level perspective, examining the dynamics between individual pairs, feminist theory encompasses mezzo and macro levels, considering broader systems such as families, communities, and governments.
Additionally, feminist theory introduces the concept of intersectionality, which has often been overlooked in attachment theory (Kemp & Brandwein, 2010). The foundational principles of attachment theory have provided valuable insights for social work and related fields; however, there is a need for a more extensive context and critical analysis of power and oppression, as highlighted by feminist theory (Gringeri et al., 2010). This research can enhance the practice of social workers by equipping them to understand the needs of mothers and therefore decreasing adverse outcomes to mom and baby. By incorporating feminism, social work clinicians are encouraged to address larger systemic issues such as poverty, housing, childcare, education, and perinatal mental health. These factors significantly influence how a mother can respond to her child(ren) ‘s needs (Glenn, 1994). The combination of attachment theory and feminism offers a comprehensive framework for understanding the role of mothering and the various factors affecting that experience, ultimately helping to clarify how these elements influence attachment, as well as informing policy, and interventions. Social workers can be leaders in addressing PMADs as they have the skills to apply theory across micro, mezzo, and macro levels. To build on these skills, schools of social work can develop curricula to integrate attachment theory, feminist theory, and perinatal mental health while offering opportunities for application through practicums in maternal health settings. Clinicians can foster an inclusive approach by validating the experiences of mothers and acknowledging the structural challenges they face. Practitioners and scholars alike can advocate for policies that encourage systemic change to support mothers and babies.
References
Ackerly, B., & True, J. (2010). Back to the future: Feminist theory, activism, and doing
feminist research in age of globalization. Women’s Studies International Forum 33, 464-472. https://doi.org/10.1016.j.wsif.2010.06.004
Ainsworth, M. D. (1969). Object relations, dependency and attachment: A theoretical review of
the infant-mother relationship. Child Development 40(4), 969-1025. http://doi.org/10.2307/1127008
Ainsworth, M. D. & Bowlby, J. (1991). An ethological approach to personality development. American Psychologist, 46(4), 333-342. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.46.4.333
Andersen, M. L. (1991). Feminism and the American family ideal. Journal of Comparative
Family Studies 12(2), 235-246. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.22.2.235
Ayers, S., Bond, R., Webb, R., Miller, P., & Bateson, K. (2019). Perinatal mental health and risk
of child maltreatment: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Abuse and Neglect 98, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104172
Barigozzi, F., Biroli, P. Monfardini, C., Montinari, N., Pisanelli, E., & Vitellozzi, S. (2025).
Beyond time: Unveiling the invisible burden of mental load. Dipartimento Scienze
Economiche, Universita’ di Bologna.
Bifulco, A., Figueiredo, B., Guedeney, N., Gorman, L. L., Hayes, S., Muzik, M., Glatigny-
Dallay, E., Valoriani, V., Kammerer, M. H., & Henshaw, C. A. (2004). Maternal
attachment style and depression associated with childbirth: Preliminary results from a
European and US cross-cultural study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 184(46), 31-37.
Bina, R. (2008). The impact of cultural factors upon postpartum depression: A literature review.
Health Care for Women International, 29, 568–592.
Bloch, M., Schmidt, P. J., Danaceau, M., Murphy, J., Nieman, L., Rubinow, D. R. (2000).
Effects of gonadal steroids in women with a history of postpartum depression. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 157(6), 924-930. https://10.1176/appi.ajp.157.6.924
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation. New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vo. 3. Loss, sadness, and depression. New York: Basic
Books.
Button, S., Thornton, A., Lee, S., Shakespeare, J., & Ayers, S. (2017). Seeking help for perinatal
psychological distress: A meta-synthesis of women’s experiences. The British Journal of
General Practice, 67(663), 692-699. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp17X692549
Cacciola, E., & Psouni, E. (2020). Insecure attachment and other help-seeking barriers among
women depressed postpartum. International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health, 17(11), 3887. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17113887
Cellissen, E., Vogels-Broeke, M., Korstjens, I., & Nieuwenhuijze, M. (2022). Integrating
women’s voices in quality improvement for maternity care: A qualitative study. European
Journal of Midwifery, 6, 57. https://doi.org/10.18332/ejm/152253
Choate, P. & Tortorelli, C. (2022). Attachment theory: A barrier for indigenous children involved
with child protection. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 19(14). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148754
Cox, J. H. & Sagovsky, R. (1987). Detection of postnatal depression. Development of the 10-
item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Br J Psychiatry 50, 782-786.
Fawcett, E. J., Fairbrother, N., Cox, M. L., White, I. R., & Fawcett, J. M. (2019). The prevalence
of anxiety disorders during the pregnancy and postpartum period: A multivariate bayesian
meta -analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology 80(4). https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.18r12527
Glenn, E. N. (1994). Social constructions of mothering: A thematic overview. In Mothering:
Ideology, experience, and agency (pp. 1–29). Routledge.
Goldbort, J. (2006). Transcultural analysis of postpartum depression. MCN: The American
Journal of Maternal/Child Nursting, 31 121-126.
Goodman, J. H. (2019). Perinatal depression and infant mental health. Archives of Psychiatric
Nursing, 33, 217-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2019.01.010
Grigoriadis, S., Wilton, A. S., Kurdyak, P. A., Rhodes, A. E., VonderPorten, E. H., Levitt, A.,
Cheung, A., & Vigond, S. N. (2017). Perinatal suicide in Ontario, Canada: A 15-year
population-based study. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 28(189), 1085-1092.
Gringeri, C., Wahab, S. & Anderson-Nathe, B. (2010). What makes it feminist? Mapping the
landscape of feminist social work research. Affilia 25(4), 390-405.
Hanley, G. E., Park, M., & Oberlander, T. F. (2018). Socioeconomic status and treatment of
depression during pregnancy: A retrospective population-based cohort study in British
Columbia, Canada. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 21(6), 765-775.
Hansen, M. E. D., (2022). Reinvigorating social work’s focus on perinatal health. International
Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics 19(1). https://10.55521/10-019-111
Harlow, E. (2021). Attachment theory: Developments, debates and recent applications in social
work, social care and education. Journal of Social Work Practice, 35(1), 79-91.
Howard, L. M., & Khalifeh, H. (2020). Perinatal mental health: A review of progress and
challenges. World Psychiatry, 19(3), 313-327. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20769
Kemp, S. P., & Brandwein, R. (2010). Feminisms and social work in the United States: An
intertwined history. Journal of Women and Social Work, 25(4), 341-364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109910384075
Land, H. (1999). The feminist approach to clinical social work in R. A. Dorfman (Ed.),
Paradigms of Clinical Social Work. (pp. 227-257). Routledge.
Liss, M., & Erchull, M. J. (2012). Feminism and attachment parenting: Attitudes, stereotypes and
misperceptions. Sex Roles, 67, 131-142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0173-z
Lokot, M. (2021). Whose voices? Whose knowledge? A feminist analysis of the value of key
informant interviews. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 20.
Mahon, P. B., Payne, J. L., MacKinnon, D. F., Mondimore, F. M., Goes, F. S, Schweizer, B., &
Jancic, D. (2009). Genome-wide linkage and follow-up association study of postpartum mood symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(11), 1229-1237. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09030417
Maternal Mental Health NOW. (n.d.). Maternal Mental Health NOW.
Martinez, A. P., Agostini, M., Al-Suhibani, A., & Bentall, R. P. (2021). Mistrust and negative
self-esteem: Two paths from attachment styles to paranoia. Psychology and
Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 94(3), 391–
406. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12314
Meredith, P., & Noller, P. (2003). Attachment and infant difficulties in postnatal depression.
Journal of Family Issues, 24(5), 668-686.
McKee, K., Admon, L. K., Winkelman, T. N. A., Muzik, M., Hall, S., Dalton, V. K., & Zivin, K.
(2020). Perinatal mood and anxiety disorders, serious mental illness, and delivery-related health outcomes, United States, 2006-2015. BMC Women’s Health, 20(150), 1-7.
Mollard, E. (2015). Exploring paradigms in postpartum depression research: The need for
feminist pragmatism. Health Care for Women International, 36, 378-391. https://doi.org10.1080/07399332.2104.903951
National Association of Perinatal Social Workers (n.d.). https://napsw.org/
Oates, M. (2003). Suicide: The leading cause of maternal death. The British Journal of
Psychiatry, 183(4), 279-281. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.183.4.279
O’Donnell, M., Maclean, M. J., Sims, S., Morgan, V. A., Leonard, H., & Stanley, F. J. (2015).
Maternal mental health and risk of child protection involvement: Mental health diagnoses associated with increased risk. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 69, 1175-1183. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2014-205240
O’Hara, M. W., & McCabe, J. E. (2013). Postpartum depression: Current status and future
directions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 379-407. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185612
O’Hara, M. W., & Wisner, K. L. (2014). Perinatal mental illness: Definition, description, and
aetiology. Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 28(1), 2-15.
O’Reilly, A. (2016). Matricentric feminism: Theory, activism, practice. Demeter Press.
Saulnier, C. F. (2008). Incorporating feminist theory into social work practice: Group work
examples. Social Work with Groups 23(1), 5-29. https://doi.org/10.1300/J009v23n01_2
Shaffer, P. A., Vogel, D. L., & Wei, M. (2006). The mediating roles of anticipated risks,
anticipated benefits, and attitudes on the decision to seek professional help: An
attachment perspective. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(4), 442–
452. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.4.442
Shuffrey, L. C., Thomason, M. E., & Brito, N. H. (2022). Improving perinatal maternal mental
health starts with addressing structural inequities. JAMA Psychiatry, 79(5), 387-388.
Smythe, K. L., Petersen, I., & Schartau, P. (2022). Prevalence of Perinatal Depression and Anxiety in Both Parents. JAMA Network Open, 5(6), e2218969. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.18969
Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B. W., & The Patient Health Questionnaire
Primary Care Study Group. (1999). Validation and utility of a self-report version of PRIME-MD: The PHQ Primary Care Study. JAMA, 282(18), 1737–1744. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.282.18.1737
Stephens, S., Ford, E., Paudyal, P., & Smith, H. (2016). Effectiveness of psychological interventions for postnatal depression in primary care: A meta-analysis. The Annals of Family Medicine, 14(5), 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.1967
Stuart, S., Couser, G., Schilder, K., O’Hara, M. W., & Gorman, L. (1998). Postpartum anxiety
and depression: onset and comorbidity in a community sample. The Journal of nervous
and mental disease, 186(7), 420–424.
Taylor, B. L., & Stanley, N. (2019). Experiences of social work intervention among mothers
with perinatal mental health needs. Health and Social Care in the Community, 27, 1586-1596. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12832
The National Association of Perinatal Social Workers. (n.d.). The National Association of
Perinatal Social Workers. https://www.napsw.org
Vicedo, M. (2017). Putting attachment in its place: Disciplinary and cultural contexts. European
Journal of Developmental Psychology, 14(6), 684-699. https://doi.org/10.4324/97804294013365
Vogel, D. L., & Wei, M. (2005). Adult attachment and help-seeking intent: The mediating roles
of psychological distress and perceived social support. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 52(3), 347–357. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.3.347
Zhang, X., Li, J., Chen, X., Xu, W., Hudson, N. W. (2022). The relationship between adult
attachment and mental health: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 123(5), 1089-1137. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000437
- JourMS - 